Skin histology

Cell types

The epidermis is made up a variety of cell types. Cell that contain keratin are known as keratinocytes. These are stratified squamous epithelial cells that are shed from the surface of the skin daily. They are the progeny of cells in the basal layer.

There are also mature non-keratinocytes that exist in the epidermis. These include the melanocytes (which are derived from embryonic neural crest), and lymphocytes and Langerhans cells that arise from bone marrow dendritic cells. As stated earlier, melanocytes synthesize and store melanin, which not only contributes to the color of the skin and hair, but also provides protection against ultraviolet radiation. They appear as clear cells in the basal layer with large, round, euchromatic nuclei. It is possible for a single melanocyte to provide melanin for approximately 30 keratinocytes via its dendritic arborisation.

The Langerhans cells serve as antigen presenting cells. They are distributed throughout the strata spinosum and basale, sparing only the sweat glands. These cells can be readily identified by a hallmark tennis racket-like discoid Birbeck granule, in addition to its euchromatic cytoplasm and Golgi complex.

There are also mechanoreceptors within the epidermis that facilitate sensory perception. The Merkel cells are clear, ovoid and may occur singly or in clusters in the stratum basale. Free nerve endings in the form of expanded discs are present at the base of these cells. Merkel cells may act as a sensory mechanoreceptors and are also thought to function as neuroendocrine sensory receptors.

Layers 

The histological composition of the five layers of the epidermis is as follows:

Stratum basale

​Stratum basale acts as the stem cell region for the epidermis. It consists of a mixture of simple cuboidal to columnar epithelium resting on a basement membrane. Compared to the cytoplasm, the nuclei of these cells are large, euchromatic, with prominent nucleoli giving a marked basophilia to this layer.

The basement membrane serves as the point of demarcation between the epidermis and the dermis (i.e. the dermo-epidermal junction). The cells of the stratum basale are anchored to adjacent cells via desmosomes and to the basement membrane by hemidesmosomes. As these highly mitotic cells replicate, they ascend the layers of the dermis; carrying intermediate keratin filaments. Only the Merkel cells are attached to adjacent keratinocytes via desmosomes in this layer. The Langerhans cells and melanocytes do not have these connections.

Stratum spinosum

Most of the cells ascending from the stratum basale to enter the stratum spinosum are post-mitotic cells and are committed to becoming mature keratinocytes. However, there are a few stem cells in the basal region of the stratum spinosum that contribute to ascending progeny that replenish exfoliated cells of the superficial layers. There are approximately 4-6 layers of cuboidal or slightly flattened cells in this region that are tapered at the point of attachment to adjacent cells via desmosomes.

The prickled appearance of the cells arises during histological preparation, where the cells shrink away from each other except at points of attachment to neighbouring cells. The cytoplasm contains a concentric arrangement of keratin filaments that circumscribe the nucleus and form attachments to the desmosomes. Melanosomes can also be found in the cytoplasm of these cells as well. It is not uncommon to find Langerhans cells and lymphocytes in the prickled layer, but these are the only non-keratinocytes that will be observed histologically in this area (under normal circumstances).

Stratum granulosum

During the upward migration from the stratum spinosum, the cells of the stratum granulosum become flattened polygonal and form two to three layers of pyknotic cells. Recall that pyknosis is a characteristic feature of apoptosis (and necrosis) in which the nuclear material condenses. Karyorrhexis (disintegration of the nucleus) subsequently ensues.

The keratohyalin granules appear as dense basophilic structures in the cytoplasm. The keratinocyte also contains Odland bodies, which are lamellar secretory organelles that are also found in type II pneumocytes. They release their hydrophobic glycophospholipid content into the intracellular compartment by fusing with the keratinocyte’s plasma membrane. This contributes to the selective permeability of the skin; making it relatively waterproof. As the cellular organelles break down, the keratin tonofilaments interact with keratohyalin granules to produce keratin. This keratin is usually the soft keratin of the skin (as opposed to hard keratin of the hair and nails).

Stratum lucidum

The stratum lucidum is an epidermal layer only appreciated in glabrous skin. Here, a translucent layer of cells lie above the stratum granulosum and below the stratum corneum. The cells are filled with keratin filaments and are devoid of nuclei and organelles.

Stratum corneum

Finally, the stratum corneum is the most superficial layer of the skin. It is designed to withstand repetitive insults in order to protect the deeper structures. The cells of this 15-20 layered stratum are dead, non nucleated, filled with soft keratin filaments, and referred to as squames (owing to their flattened appearance). There is considerable overlapping at the lateral extent of the squames where there is interlocking of adjacent cells. The squames are continuously lost from the skin surface and replaced by new cells emerging from the basal layer. The sheets of glycolipid released from the Odland bodies of the granular layer fill the intercellular spaces of the cornified layer.

Mnemonic

If remembering all these layers seems like a daunting prospective a mnemonic can help! Just memorise 'British & Spanish Grannies Love Cornflakes', which covers the following structures:

• Stratum Basale
• Stratum Spinosum
• Stratum Granulosum
• Stratum Lucidum
• Stratum Corneum

Components

Deep to the epidermis is the dermis. This region is irregularly arranged and filled mostly with connective tissue. It lies deep to the basement membrane of the stratum basale. In adults, approximately 85% of the collagen fibers that provides tenacity, is type I collagen, while the remainder is type III collagen. In addition to collagen, the dermis also contains elastic fibers that facilitate recoil of the skin. Type IV collagen is primarily located at the dermo-epidermal junction, where it envelops Schwann cells as well as vascular endothelium. Types V, VI and VII collagen fibres contribute very little to the dermal structure.

Both the collagen and elastic network are held together by a mixture of glycoproteins, bound water and glycosaminoglycans. The integrity of the fibrous network varies with age and even within particular regions of the body. While the connective tissue network is strong enough to hold the skin together, it still allows epidermal appendages, neurovasculature, and lymphatics to pass through its substance.

Cell types

The dermis also contains two general types of cells postnatally. There are permanent cells, which are part of other fixtures in the dermis (i.e. arrector pili muscles, vessels, and nerves) and migratory cells (i.e. lymphocytes and other leukocytes) that carry out an immune function.

Layers

Papillary layer

There are two definitive layers of the dermis. The more superficial of the two is the papillary layer. It is characterized by dermal papillae, which are raised irregular projections that interlace with the epidermal ridges of the epidermis. Apically, the papillae are blunted and can be separated into cusps. They are less abundant and smaller in thin skin that has minimal mechanical stress, when compared to in areas of thicker skin (i.e. palms and soles), where they tend to form curved parallel lines.

Fine type III collagen is typically found in throughout this layer (especially in the perivascular regions) of the dermis. Keratinocytes of the basal layer are attached to the fibrous matrix in the papillary layer through connections to hemidesmosomes. Subsequently, the hemi-desmosomes are attached to the type VII collagen fibrils through the anchoring filaments of the basal membrane. The type VII collagen runs deep in the papillary dermis and therefore provides mechanical stability to the epidermal substratum. Overall, the papillary layer not only gives mechanical support to the epidermis, but it also provides metabolic sustenance as well.

Reticular layer

Deep to the papillary layer is the reticular layer of the dermis. There is no clear demarcation between the two structures. Unlike the papillary layer, the reticular layer contains mostly coarse type I fibers with variable number of elastic fibers. There is significant interaction between the type I and type III fibres in both layers to the point where a sturdy, yet malleable, lattice is formed.

In 1861, Karl Langer (an Austrian anatomist) discovered the now widely accepted Langer’s lines. These topographical landmarks are used in surgical procedures as guidelines for points of incisions. Otherwise known as cleavage lines, these markings correspond with the orientation of dermal collagen fibres. Incision along these lines result in healing with minimal scarring and subsequently, a less apparent postoperative scar.

Hypodermis

Finally, the dermis rests on a layer of loose connective tissue known as the hypodermis. It is a superficial fascial sheath with interspersed adipose tissue (panniculus adiposus). The fascia reduces the friction between the dermis and deeper musculature, while the adipose tissue participates in thermoregulatory mechanisms as well as disperses forces generated from direct impact.

There is geographical variation in the distribution of superficial adipose tissue, as those individuals living in colder climate tend to have a larger quantity of fat than those living in warmer climates. However, the amount of subcutaneous fat present in an individual is an indication of that person’s lipid stores, and by extension, their dietary consumption of lipids. A small bundle of smooth muscles called arrector pili muscle that serves to connect the deep part of hair follicle with superficial dermis originates in this layer. Contraction of these muscles due to extreme fright or cold causes the erection of hair and puckering of skin commonly known as goose bumps.